The Criminal Justice System And Race Criminology Essay

The Criminal Justice System And Race Criminology Essay Conceptions of race within the criminal justice system have always been a controversial issue. Indeed, there is no denying that in terms of prison population ethnic minorities are grossly overrepresented: despite making up only 2% of the total population of Britain, black people still make up 15% of the population of prisons (Ashworth). If one assumes that these statistics represent overt racism within the administration of the criminal justice system then calls for reform and possibility of change will be high, however there has been a tendency to see these statistics as presenting the evidence of an irreconcilable problem, of deeper seated decay within, not just in the lower echelons of the criminal justice system, but society as a whole (Chelitotis and Liebling). If this is so then the answer to whether the criminal justice system can be made to operate equitably in relation to race may require a process of deeper reforms. It is necessary to assess first the query of whether racism exists within the system and if so, to what extent. Bowling argues that there exists an either, or debate; whether the overrepresentation in the prison population is the result of a higher rate of black people committing offences, or, conversely, the result of an accumulation of bias throughout the criminal process. Waters, in his early article Race and the Criminal Justice Process, suggests that the debate can be further defined as those that fall into the legal factors camp, who believe that the reason for differences custodial sentence decisions are legal factors such as severity of offence and previous criminal record (which may in themselves be the result of broader structural and economic factors such as unemployment and poverty) and that these variables quite satisfactorily explain the predominance of black people in prison. One the other hand the extra-legal factors camp argue that over and above the racial discrimin ation experienced in society as a whole, black people receive unfair and inferior treatment by virtue of the ethnicity at the hands of a predominantly white justice system.Oxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com The research conducted by Hood would seem to suggest that there are in existence some extra legal factors and therefore discrimination in sentencing. Hood found that after samples had been matched on variables predictive of custodial sentences (e.g. seriousness of offence, previous convictions, employment, and other pre-sentence report findings) there was a 5% greater chance of being handed a custodial sentence if you were black, and that this difference (which also resulted in black defendants being sentenced for 3 months longer and Asians 9 months longer where a not guilty plea was entered). However Ashworth highlights the fact that Hoods research does not account for the fact that more black people enter guilty pleas, choose to come to the crown court where sentences given are often harsher and may disproportionately become involved in more serious crime. Thus the study is not conclusive that there does not exist a whole host of other factors why ethnic minorities may come to be w ithin the system in the first place. Indeed, Von Hirsch and Roberts in their reflections on the Hood study highlight the problems inherent in the assumption of a level playing field of the variables chosen. For example, with employment: there is evidence that black people suffer from disadvantage in the labour market, so to take this into account when sentencing would amount to an indirect form of discrimination. Thus there are clearly deeper roots of discrimination which cumulatively result in the discrepancies seen. Chelitotis and Liebling argue that differences in levels and patterns of offending may result from a vicious crime circle of stereotyping black people as more crime prone. This leads to over-policing ethnic minority neighbourhoods, thereby drawing more ethnic minorities into the criminal justice net, consequently extending their criminal records and meaning they are more likely to be sentenced severely. They are also therefore more likely to be re-targeted by the polic e, resulting, again, in increasingly punitive sentencing when they are reconvicted. Thus it would seem the problem is not merely in the overt form of discrimination, but exists throughout the system, perhaps even worsening the lower the visibility level becomes. One only needs to take a look at the stop and search statistics to see this borne out, black people being 6.5 times more likely to be stopped and Oxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com ), leading to s comment that ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected. However, once again the picture is not so clear cut; it can be argued that what the figures actually represent is differences in the type of crime committed, with ethnic minorities being more involved in street crime such as drug offences and therefore more likely to be stopped and searched in suspicion of such relatively visible activity. This is further exacerbated by social and demographic factors and by differences in work and leisure life which mean that not only are minorities in greater numbers in areas and at times where searches occur, but that more searches occur in the urban areas in which they live, in which unemployment and social deprivation are high (. Nevertheless the wide discretion accorded to police in such cases means that the prevalence of minority groups in the figures suggests some form of racism. searched than white people, and Asians twice as likely (Home Office 2005),given that the majority ofthese initial stops do not lead to anyfurther action(87%), it would seemto suggest that this is merely evidence of discriminatoryracial profilingand stereotyping.Whilst the basis of such actions is of s1 ofPACE (which permits police to stop and search with onlyreasonable suspicion)and s60 CJPOA (which permits searches without suspicion where seriousviolence is anticipated or to searchfor weapons), andtherefore essentiallylegal, its exercise can be seen as targeted (Quinton), leading to Reiners comment that ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected.However,once again the picture is not so clear cut;it can be argued that what the figures actually represent is differences in the type of crime committed,withethnic minorities being more involved in street crime such as drug offencesand thereforemore likely to be stopped and searched in suspicion of suchrelatively visibleactivit y. This is further exacerbated by social and demographicfactors and by differences in work and leisure life which mean thatnot only are minorities in greater numbers in areas and at times where searches occur, butthatmore searches occur in the urban areas in which they live, in whichunemploymentand social deprivation are high (Philips). Nevertheless the widediscretion accorded to police in such cases means that the prevalenceofminority groups in the figures suggests some formof racism. Indeed, the Macpherson Inquiry into the Stephen Lawrence affair was elucidatory on the existenceof institutional racism within the police system,defined byMacphersonas the collective failure of an organisation to providean appropriateand professionalservice to people because of their colour,culture or ethnic origin, it can be seen detected in the processes, attitudes andbehaviour which amountto unwitting prejudice, ignorance,thoughtlessnessand racist stereotypingwhich disadvantages ethnic minorities and thereforewould accountfor the disproportionate representation ofblacks in the systemand for the high level of racist incidents detected (police recorded racistincidents have increased dramatically from4,383 incidents in 1988 to 52,694 in2004-Home Office). WhilstLeahighlights that Macphersons discussion oninstitutional racismfails to locate with sufficientprecision its roots within thestructure of operational policy and the relationship between policeand minority Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com too asserts that institutional racism does exist, and that it stems not only from the occupational culture of the police and the particular forms of contact they have with ethnic minorities, but also from the belief that they are dangerous classes. Stopping and searching therefore represents a form of generalised surveillance of those who they believe to have little political capital. In these ways Lea argues that racism does arise from the normal functioning of the police system, a sentiment that was echoed by a comment from the Director General of the Prison Service 2001 when he said that the prison is an institutionally racist institution which reflects an institutionally racist white society(). communities,Leatoo asserts that institutional racismdoes exist,and that itstems notonly from the occupational culture of the police and the particularforms of contact theyhave with ethnic minorities, but also fromthe belief thatthey are dangerous classes.Stopping andsearching therefore represents aformof generalised surveillance of those who they believe to have little politicalcapital. In these ways Lea argues that racism does arisefrom the normalfunctioning of the police system, a sentiment that was echoed by a commentfrom the Director General of the Prison Service 2001 when he said that theprison is an institutionally racist institution which reflects an institutionally racistwhite society(Lea). Thus it can be seen that a complex interplay of socio-economic, demographic,institutional, structuraland culturalfactors, alongside direct and indirect racialdiscrimination (Philips) are responsiblefor the overrepresentation anddiscriminatory outcomes evident in the system.Edgar and Martinconcur,suggesting that in the context ofdiscussion on discriminatory treatment withinprisons, the experiences of ethnic minorities should be see in the context ofexpectations which might have arisen fromcontact with other criminal justiceagencies. Further,Wacquentnotes that prison confines groups endowed with negative symbolic capital, and that their stigmatisation constitutes part oftherelationship between the confined and thosein authority. Just as the prison,heargues, may mirror external macro-socialtrends, so too can it lead to theirexistence by stigmatising and curtailing the life chances of ethnic minoritiesfurther. Thus once again,discrimination can be seen to be adeep-seatedissue, and one wh ich is not necessarily adequately addressed by combatingthe administration of the laws.Waters, in his article, expresses the need todistinguish between concepts ofequality and equity.Indeed, it can be seenthat equality between treatment of black and white offenders does notnecessarily equate tofairness or appropriateness, and we should strive forjustice rather than equality per se in recognition that society is notequal. This is acomparative exercise where quality meansthatsameness is notnecessarily desirable,and justice may demand some differentiation on groundsof race in order to treat all people equitably(Pinder). For example, in relation tothe employment point above, recognising the inequalities in the labour market Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com notes, the challenge for the criminal justice system is to discover at what point negotiated differentiation becomes an imposed discrimination. We need to distinguish between notions of process and outcome; justice and fairness in the way laws are administered does not necessarily make them fair in and of themselves. Thus, there exists discrimination on a broad level within the criminal justice system, which needs to be recognised and addressed at the decision-making level. As advocates, it is necessary to address both the administration of the system with regard to race, but also the policies themselves, and what is necessary to ensure that treatment throughout the system is fair. and therefore not unduly discriminating against those who are unemployed during sentencing may help to furtherfairness overall. As Van Dykenotes, thechallenge for the criminal justice system is to discover at what point negotiateddifferentiation becomes an imposed discrimination.We need to distinguishbetween notionsofprocess and outcome; justice and fairness in the way laws are administered does not necessarily make themfair inandof themselves.Thus,there exists discrimination on a broad levelwithin the criminal justicesystem,which needs to be recognised andaddressed at the decision-making level. As Von Hirschadvocates, it is necessary to address both theadministration of the system withregard to race,but also the policiesthemselves, and what is necessary to ensure that treatment throughout thesystem is fair. The fact of the matter, however, is that ethnic minorities do notcare whatreasonsunderpinthe discrimination they are suffering, whether it be due tobroader socio-economic factors or whether it issues directly from the personthey are dealingwith (Waters). The result is a lack of legitimacy in their eyes,attributed to the criminal justice system as a whole, resulting in blackdefendants being more likely to pleadnot guilty and to optfor the Crown court(Von Hirsch),thus furtherincreasingtheir propensity to be sentencedseverely. The problem becomes perpetual:if the justice system is viewed asinequitable it will breed defianceamong those who feel they are not beingtreated fairly, resulting in afurtherhike in the overrepresentation ofethnicminorities within the system. If the system is to made to operate equitably in relation to race it will require a tall order of reforms. Whilst direct and institutional racism can be addressed by ethnic minority recruitment drives within the police force, and racial awareness trainingfor all criminal justiceofficials, the broadersocial-economic issues will require change in politicaland social policy(Hood and Shute). Whatis clearis that race is a covertissue;a difficult problem to attemptto address as so few are willing toacknowledge its existenceoutright(Bosworth). Thus perhaps most pertinentwould be to increase awareness of the prevalenceofbroaderforms of indirectdiscrimination and social inequality and to attempt to keep these concerns in Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com mind so that decisions at all stages can, at least as much as is possible, be made equitably.

Comparing Dubliners and To the Lighthouse Essay -- comparison compare

Comparing Dubliners and To the Lighthouse In Dubliners and To the Lighthouse, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf explore the depressing results of lives devoid of growth or meaning versus those who dare to live their lives in spite of all strife and adversity. Joyce and Woolf are both concerned with the meaninglessness of stagnant lives, the first operating in pre-WWI Ireland, the second in England during and after the war. "The Dead" and To the Lighthouse both reveal the despair of lives that occupy but do not fill the short span of time between birth and inevitable death. With "The Dead", Joyce brings his lament for Ireland's plight to its depressing yet strangely peaceful conclusion. Like all the previous stories in Dubliners, "The Dead" gives the reader a heavy dose of the social depravity of an Ireland torn by internal war. Everyone in the story seems so caught up in remembering the faded glory of the past that the living have become even more stagnant and perished than the dead themselves. Aunt Julia appears first as a faded flower: "her hair...was grey; and grey also, with darker shadows, was her large flaccid face. ...[She had] the appearance of a woman who did not know where she was or where she was going" (187-188). Even this initial description seems to be of one near or even past death. Even while singing more beautifully than she ever had (202-203), she seems more prepared for her funeral than "Arrayed for the Bridal". She has both authored and, for every Christmas party she has ever thrown, performed this song about a wedding, and yet has never herself married or produced children. Her life, though intermittently beautiful while it has lasted, will soon end in obscurity, fruitless, childless, "wasted", as her ... ...ort of lasting meaning. What the lamented heroes of old had, and the zombie-like characters of the present generally lack, is the knowledge that the formation and maintenance of emotional bonds between human beings are the only meaningful enterprise of the human spirit and the only worthwhile endeavor of the human life. Both authors make it clear that those who spend their lives going through the motions of an unemotional society waste their lives as slowly and painfully as their bodies waste away. For them, the only way to truly live one's life is to follow the feeling, the passion of the soul. Works Cited: Benstock, Bernard. Critical Essays on James Joyce. G.K. Hall & Co. Boston, Massachusetts: 1985. Joyce, James. Dubliners. New York: Washington Square Press, 1998. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1989.

A Civil Action Essay

‘A Civil Action’ is a legal thriller, well-directed and presented in such a way that manages to create certain mood of extreme anxiety and fear, which all the more increases the tension level to filter throughout the movie. If you think that watching a movie in which lawyers are seen reading doesn’t sound exciting, you will have to give a second thought. The director, Steven Zaillian of ‘A civil action’, has managed to maintain the suspense and thrill throughout the movie. There have been lots of movies based on the water as subject but here water looks so ominous as it never had felt before. Jan Schlichtmann (John Travolta) is a lawyer who is greedy and runs a law firm that has only one aim and that is of getting profitable cases. Right in the first scene, Schlichtmann talks about which would be better for his business, whether a dead black or a dead white or a dead cripple or a dead kid, and while stating all this his voice is subtle cold. The film is all about the case of 12 dead kids who died due to contaminated drinking water, which is because of two main food companies. Schlichtmann accepts this case in order to get a good payoff. Because he believes and says once in the movie, â€Å"A lawyer who feels compassion for his client is worse than a doctor who recoils at the sight of blood†. The lawyer from the food company’s side starts with idiosyncratic and strange way so that Schlichtmann takes him too lightly. And when the trial proceeds, viewers start feeling the excitement and anxiety of what next was going to happen. Schlichtmann is seen gathering information for his case and spending lot of time and resources for the sake of them. So much so that his company runs of fund and they use credit cards, try to et loans and even buy lottery tickets to fight this case. Anne Anderson (Kathleen Quinlan), the spokesperson of the families whose kids died, is seen almost pleading and is quite sympathetic with the families. ‘A Civil Action’ is a story of the case but in the end the question does not arise about that is the winner. Even in the final sequence in the courtroom there is no slowdown as such and finally one feels that it was a story of Schlichtmann who turns to be a considerate human being slowly along with fighting for the case. During this journey he comes in ontact with Jerome Facher who is a strong attorney but always bounces a ball on walls and carries a suitcase that is trodden up. This act of Facher proves to be of assuredness eventually and his appearance itself makes other lawyers nervous. The ending gives the impression of the real creativity of the filmmakers and they don’t leave the viewers behind with a cheap one. So instead of giving any stereotyped ending, the director leaves it in mid-air and the thrill remains till the end. The direction of the movie is so intense that every time water is poured in the glass, a ringe of fear develops in viewer’s mind. In one scene Schlichtmann is standing on a bridge and water is flowing underneath, and the sound effects created here makes the viewer feel as if there is a dead secret in the water itself. Travolta has done an extremely good job and is seen quite convincing and of course very powerful. Travolta portrays the role of a man, who understands in the end that money is not the whole thing, in earnest and effective manner. This film is worth seeing for those who love thriller, which includes palpable suspense and tension throughout.

Bio Implant materials essays

Bio Implant materials essays This paper will discuss the key properties of three categories of implant alloys; stainless steels, cobalt-based alloys, and titanium-based alloys, focusing on those properties which make the implant alloys ideal for skeletal implants. An additional focus of the paper will be on any disadvantages possessed by each group of implant alloys. Wood was probably the first bioimplant, a sturdy, inert, and readily available material in the older days. But as mankind aged newer materials were discovered, and often created, that were indeed superior. The search for a exceptional implant alloy is one which has laboratories researching and testing different types of alloys for the best combination of strength, durability, corrosion resistance, and other important traits these alloys must possess. The first implant metal to be discussed is stainless steel. The one most common stainless steel in use is 316L, grade 2. This particular alloy is mostly iron, chromium, and nickel, though it also contains nitrogen, magnesium, molybdenum, phosphorous, silicon, and sulfur. Most implant quality 316L has at least 62.5% iron, 17.6% chromium, and 14.5% nickel. The implant quality 316L has improved corrosion resistance, structure, and ductility over the commercial quality form of the alloy. An important property of the stainless steel alloy is its high chromium content which fights corrosion by forming an surface oxide. The nickel is added to insure no delta ferrite, or to combat the impact the chromium, molybdenum, and silicon have in forming ferrite. No delta ferrite is a condition where there is no metallic resonance, allowing for the implant to still be safe even when the patient is undergoing an MRI. There is a drawback to the use of nickel in the implant, which in turn means there is a drawback to the implant itself. Somewhere in between 3% and 5% of the population is allergic to nickel. Nickel causes inf...

Renn. Manners essays

Renn. Manners essays Societies and cultures are often defined by the behaviours and idiosyncrasies that are unique to a group of people. Just as this rule generally applies to the modern world, so does it to the past and more specifically the time of rebirth in western society (AKA the Renaissance.) Just before and during this period, the process of urbanization took place across Europe, as surplus agriculture (as a result of new technology and methods) allowed the former rural classes to move to developing metropolitan cities. The result of this process was inevitably that people would interact with one another on a more regular basis than before, and the old medieval debate about the contemplative and secluded life versus the active and social life seemed to be resolved. In his book Galateo, Giovanni Della Casa addresses the issues that displease him in the developing active life and attempts to codify a set of manners to deal with these issues. On the surface, this treatise provides many examples of social behaviour that are familiar with us in the modern world, but if the reader carefully examines how these manners fit into the context of the Renaissance, certain cultural assumptions of the time period are hidden just beneath the surface. In order to understand the context in which the book was written, we must first examine how the author fit into this exciting period of change. Giovanni Della Casa was an Archbishop, and influential individual as a diplomat for the Vatican. Despite his ecclesiastical background, Della Casas writings prove to the reader that the general mentality of the Renaissance (especially in the middle class) was the overarching cultural assumption that viewed the active life as worthy aspiration. The Galateo covertly expresses humanistic ideals, republicanism and praise for the public man, giving the reader a clear impression of what the culture of the time was like. The first way that Della C...

Research Report Assessment Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Report Assessment - Research Paper Example Amongst various studies that have been conducted concerning this significant subject matter, a sort of moderate attitude towards the exercise of restraints with the elderly people can be viewed. A few of the reasons that can be considered as quite vital concerning the use of physical restraints with elderly people are viewed to be related with the safety concern of the patients (Werner & Mendelsson, 2001). With this concern, the purpose of this study is to forecast the adequacy of Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and also to explain the reasons about why the nurses are executing physical restraints with elderly people and ultimately how they are benefitted. Research Question or Hypothesis The research questions that are appropriate for this particular study has been portrayed hereunder. Whether the attitude, approach and the subjective norms are related to the intention of nurse’s intention towards employing physical restraints particularly with the elderly people? How the nurs e’s attitude, approach, subjective norms and objectives to exercise physical restraints are linked with selected professional as well as demographic variables? Research Variables Dependent Variables The main dependent variables used in the study include moral obligation, intention, attitude as well as subjective norm. Independent Variable Independent variables are mainly regarded as the socio- economic characteristics like age and professional facets such as years in the profession and the percentage of restraints used. The independent variables are first examined and then their merged effects are taken into concern for making further study. Extraneous Variables There are two extraneous variables that can be viewed in this study. These comprise years of education and religious belief of the people (Werner & Mendelsson, 2001). Research Design Research designs in general are of three kinds that include experimental, descriptive and causal research design. The research design us ed in this study is causal research design. It is often viewed to be a study which highlights the impact of one thing over the other (University of Southern California, n.d.). In this regard, a particular research design of correlation design has been taken into concern in the study with 303 nursing staffs in the region of Central Israel (Werner & Mendelsson, 2001). Population and Sample Setting In terms of setting, the population or the sample volume for this research study can be viewed as 303 staff members of nursing in an 800-bed hospital located in the central area of Israel (Werner & Mendelsson, 2001). Target and Accessible Population Participants have been asked to report their consent by taking into concern three different cases. These cases have been presented hereunder. 1. The first case is of an 87 year-old patient having cognitive deterioration and is hospitalized for three days. 2. The second case is of a 80 year-old patient who has been suffering from Cerebral Vascular Accident. 3. The third case included that of a 75 year-old patient who is suffering from moderate cognitive impairment (Werner & Mendelsson, 2001). Sample and Sampling Plan Three hundred and three nursing staff members of an 800 bed elder care hospital had participated in the study which was conducted. Females constituted majority of the population with

A Diamond Personality Paper Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Diamond Personality Paper - Case Study Example This paper will determine the possible characteristics or qualities of an entrepreneur who seeks to achieve his goal. Factors that Contributed to Rodriguez’s Success The success of Oscar Rodriguez, an entrepreneur who ventured on selling diamonds online as middleman between buyer and supplier lies on several qualities he have: perseverance, attention to details, a will to maintain his own income-streaming business, and a discipline to keep things in perspective. This mean that Rodriguez may feel and experience failure and disappointments but he persevered and determined to continue and find ways to address the obstacles such as the unwillingness of suppliers to provide him with diamonds, the discouragement of one supplier about online selling of such a precious commodity, the lack of big capital, and failure in retailing. Perseverance, determination, and the drive to go after something are some of the most elusive characteristics among the majority of people. These characteris tics are similar and will be discussed on this portion as one. When an entrepreneur is determined to pursue success in his venture, he is not easily daunted by setbacks or failures but instead learn from them. Many individuals may feel they are losers when negative experiences happen. However, the determined entrepreneur like Rodriguez will not mull on his failure or loss but instead move on and find other possibilities (Marquez, 2007) linked or not linked with his current venture. There are a lot of challenges in every business venture (Fenton and Inglis, 2007) and these never seem to cease. The business environment is fraught with problems and issues including but not limited to capital investment, partnerships, supplier and employee relations, public and social responsibility, image, while keeping the business afloat, and many others (Ghosh, 2008). By adopting means and ways to address perceived and experienced business challenges, the business organization will be able to minimi ze risks and loses, but not exactly eliminate them. All these are experienced by Rodriguez. But acceptance of the inevitable challenges comes with the venture. Success in a business enterprise does not always mean being at the right place at the right time. It did not take a single shot for Rodriguez to experience success. First, his retail shop closed. Then, the supplier or dealer he approached did not believe in his proposal. His determination to proceed and succeed made the difference. Rodriguez Score on the Big Five Dimensions of Personality I believe that Rodriguez’ highest score on the Big Five dimension of personality is on conscientiousness. He pursued his business plan tenaciously and in complementing order with the other dimensions of personality including openness to experience, extraversion and agreeableness. He was determined to continue the business he started, only on another platform instead of the retail high-street or mortar one. He went online instead and s ought the opportunities available for him. Conscientiousness is defined as the tendency to be self-disciplined and acting on self-imposed duty with the aim to achieve something. This is also seen with leadership abilities as conscientiousness also shows a person who work as planned. Rodriguez may at times act on impulse but upon analysis of possibilities for a venture, he sought which should be done and the course of his business venture. He hired the right persons, connected with the willing dealer-suppliers, and pursued possibilities for his venture. Rodriguez showed an openness to experience when he dabbled on jewelry despite his lack of knowledge on it and upon the